THE TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS.

FOR various reasons which will be explained, parts for certain instruments are written at a pitch higher or lower than that at which thev actually sound. The score-reader must therefore be able mentally to transpose these parts to their proper pitch. Such instruments are known as "transposing instruments", and here follows a list of them : Piccolo, Double Bassoon, Double Bass, Clarinet and Bass Clarinet, Horn, Trumpet, Cor Anglais, Tenor Tuba, Saxophone and Bass Flute. The first three of these are easily disposed of and easily read, as their transposition is only that of an octave. The Piccolo is a miniature Flute and as the fingering of both Piccolo and Flute is identical and the pitch of the Piccolo is an octave above the flute, it makes it easier for the player and avoids a multitude of leger lines or 8va signs to write its part an octave lower than it really sounds. Therefore Piccolo parts must be imagined as sounding an octave higher than they appear. The Double Bassoon has the same fingering as the Bassoon but its pitch is an octave lower. Ease of reading for the player and avoidance of leger lines below the staff are therefore obtained by writing the part an octave higher than it really sounds. Therefore Double Bassoon parts must be imagined as sounding an octave lower than they appear. In old scores the Violoncello and Double Bass parts were written on one staff, and nearly always played together, apparently in unison. The Double Bass was really, however, playing an octave below the Violoncello so that the single line marked "Bassi" was actually being played all the time in octaves. Now that there is more independence between Violoncello and Double Bass parts than formerly, their parts are written on separate staves but the Double Bass part must be imagined as sounding an octave lower than it appears.

The Clarinet. Two Clarinets appear regularly in scores. One is in B flat, the Other in A. This being interpreted means that when the note C is played on the B flat clarinet, the note B flat is sounded, and when the note C is played on the A clarinet the note A is sounded. We might put it thus : The B flat Clarinet is a tone flat. The A Clarinet is a minor third flat. To rectify this the part for the B flat Clarinet is written a tone higher and that for the A Clarinet a minor third higher than tlie desired note. Thus, if the orchestra is playing in the key of B flat, the B flat Clarinet will be used and it will be playing in the key of C. If the orchestra is playing in the key of A, the A Clarinet will be used and it will be playing in the key of C. The composer chooses the clarinet which will give it the simplest key to play in. Thus if the orchestra is playing in the key of F he will use the B flat Clarinet which will then play in the key of G, also if the orchestra is playing in the key of E flat or A flat he will use the B flat Clarinet which will then play in the keys of F or B flat respectively. If, on the other hand, the orchestra is playing in the key of D or E he will use the A Clarinet, which will then be playing in the keys of F or G respectively. In short, the B flat Clarinet is used for flat keys and the A clarinet for sharp ones, because such a procedure ensures a simple key-signature for the Clarinet part. The reason ? Obviously, because the technique of the Clarinet becomes more difficult and awkward, the more sharps or flats there are in the key-signature. Indeed, in the early days of the instrument it was quite impossible to play in any but the simplest keys. In classical times yet another Clarinet was used, in C. The part was not transposed. (C on the instrument =true C.) This was used for the key of C itself, as for instance in Beethoven's 1st Symphony. It was also used for the key of G. As the technique of the Clarinet improved, the C Clarinet, which apparently had a poor tone, was discarded, so that now we have only the Clarinets in B flat and A. The following quotations will help to drive home these transpositions : For the Bass Clarinet two methods of notation are used. The better of these is that which employs the treble clef—better for the player, that is, and therefore better altogether. The transposition is the same as for Clarinets in B flat and A with the addition of an octave, i.e. the transposition is of the ninth and tenth instead of the second and third. Two examples will make this clear : The other method is to write the Bass Clarinet part in the Bass clef, the transposition being the same as for ordinary Clarinets, for example : The Tenor Tuba though rarely used is mentioned here because its transposition is the same as that of the Bass Clarinet, both notations being in use. There is, however, no Tenor Tuba in A but only in B flat. Actually the Bass Clarinet in A has ceased to exist, parts for this being now played on the B flat instrument. The Cor Anglais is a large-sized oboe whose pitch stands a fifth below that of the ordinary Oboe. In order to make its part easy for an Oboist to read (the fingering being the same for both instruments) its part is written a fifth above the required sounds. To get the true pitch of a Cor Anglais passage, it must therefore be imagined as sounding a fifth lower. Example :

The Horn. In classical scores horns in many keys are to be found, namely, C, D. E flat, E, F, G, A, B basso, B flat alto, and B flat basso. In recent times this formidable array has been reduced to one, the Horn in F. The reason for this welcome change is that up to the forties or thereabouts of the last century the Horn could only play a hand- ful of notes in any given key, whereas since then it has been fitted with valve-mechanism which enables it to play any note within its compass. Most readers will be familiar with the fact that the notes of a bugle are confined to notes of a common chord based on the bottom note of the instrument, and that these upper notes are harmonics or " upper partials " of that bottom note. The old Horn without valves, or " Natural Horn " as it is called, could produce more of these upper partials than a bugle, but still was very limited in scope. These upper partials, or " open " notes as they are called, are produced entirely by varying the lip-pressure and' breatliing. Here are the open notes of a Horn whose fundamental note is C : It follows that a Horn with a fundamental note C would be able to contribute very few notes to a piece in the key of D or B flat, and fewer still in keys like E or A flat. Horn tone was found to be so valuable, sonorous and splendid in the orchestra that something had to be done about it. It would manifestly be absurd to write all orchestral music in the same key for the sake of the horns, therefore the obvious thing was to think of some way of bringing the instrument into line with the various keys. If the length of the horn could be shortened its bottom note (or " funda- mental ") would of course be raised and all its upper partials would go up correspondingly, and if it could be lengthened the fundamental and upper partials would be lowered. Accordingly a part of the curved tube of the horn was made detachable, so that bits of different lengths, called " crooks " could be inserted. These crooks were labelled D, E flat, F. etc., to show what fundamental they would produce. But whatever crook he used, the horn player went on calling the fundamental note C and the composer therefore had to go on calling it C too. This gave rise to a system something like the tonic sol-fa in which the key note instead of being called " doh " was always called C. The composer indicated what crook was to be used, the player put it in and went on puffiing away in C (as he thought) but really produced notes derived from the funda- mental note whose name was stamped on the crook. Let us take a simple musical example. Here is a passage which would have been playable on a Natural Horn : And here are the sounds which would be produced by crooks : Remember that for all these the player would be actually reading the passage in the key of C. For easy reference we will take a single note C and show its trans- position : Note that the Horn in C sounds an octave lower than the written note (just to make it not quite straightforward, sighs the reader !) Before leaving the subject of the Natural Horn, the particular use of the Bass clef must be mentioned. This clef is used for the lowest notes of the instrument, but the transposition is inverted; for instance the Horn in D transposes up a second instead of down a seventh, the Horn in F transposes up a fourth instead of down a fifth. Thus we have: And Echo answers " Why ? " Although, at first sight, this large variety of transpositions seems rather terrifying, it becomes far less so when we remember the simplicity of classical Horn parts. We mentioned above that the modern valve-horn is fitted with mechanism which automatically and instantaneously changes the fundamental note and con- sequently the series of upper partials. By its means the player opens or closes at will certain sections of tubing instead of having to remove one crook and insert another. He is thus in possession of a Horn which is capable of playing all the semitones between its bottom and top notes. The Horn in F was decided upon as the standard valve horn no doubt because its range was the most useful for filling in middle parts in the orchestral texture. The Russians were among the first to adopt the Horn in F as the standard, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakoff, etc., always using it. Since the turn of this century, at least, it may safely be said that all Horn parts have been written for Valve-Horn in F. Exceptions are found in Richard Strauss's works. German composers, notably the tra- ditionalist Brahms, clung to the Natural Horn long after it had been superseded in practice by the Valve-Horn, but Wagner and other go-ahead composers of the nineteenth century soon realised the possibilities of the mechanised Horn. Wagner's writing for Brass is therefore much more modern and advanced than that of Brahms in spite of the latter being of similar or later date. In scores in which the Natural Horn was written for, it was a common practice to write for the two Horns in different keys so as to get a greater variety of notes. Where four horns were used one pair was often in one 'key and one in another for the same reason, while occasionally all four were in different keys. Thus in Mozart's Symphony in G minor one Horn is in B flat and the other in G in the first and last movements, while in the slow movement, which is in the key of E flat, both Horns are in E flat, and in the Minuet, which has its Trio in G major, both are in G. In Beethoven's Choral Symphony (No. 9 in D minor), four Horns are used, one pair being in D and the other in B flat in the first two movements while in the slow movement which is mostly in the key of B flat, one pair is in E flat and the other in B flat. The last movement starts with one pair in D and the other in B flat, as in the first, but both pairs are in D for the latter part of the last movement when the key becomes firmly D major. Four Horns all in different keys are used by Berlioz. For instance, in " Romeo and Juliet " the work starts with the Horns in E, E flat, G and F respectively, and the crooks are changed fairly frequently throughout the work. This gave him a large selection of notes to play about with, though all four were Natural Horns. It took time for the Valve-Horn to become firmly established in the orchestra and in scores written during the period of transition we may find one pair of Natural and one pair of Valve-Horns employed. Wagner did this in his early operas, so that in the Tannhauser Overture, for instance, we see one pair of " Waldhorner " (Natural Horns) and one of "Ventilhorner" (Valve-Horns), both pairs in E. Nowadays all Natural Horn parts are played on the Valve- Horn in F, the player doing the necessary transposition of his part at sight. Many composers also nowadays reject the anomalous notation in the bass clef, the transposition being the same as in the treble clef.

The Trumpet. Most of the above remarks about the Horn are applicable also to the Trumpet. This instrument too was originally a Natural Trumpet without valves and therefore, was fitted with various crooks. As the Trumpet is an octave higher in pitch than the Horn the transposition in some cases is up instead of down, e.g., the sound of the Trumpet in D is a tone above the written note, not a seventh below, that of the Trumpet in E flat is a minor third above instead of a major 6th below, and that of the Trumpets in E and F are respectively up a major third and a perfect fourth. The trans- position of the Trumpets in B flat and A is however exactly the same as that of Clarinets in the same keys, while the Trumpet in C sounds the written note, not its octave below. The following shows the transpositions at a glance : Trumpets in other keys were also in existence but need not detain us as they were hardly ever used. As on the Natural Horn, crooks were used to change the keys, and the open notes were the same as those of the Natural Horn. The standard valve-trumpets in use today are those in C, B flat and A. The A Trumpet is however not used much as it is an adaptation of the B flat instrument and is not very well in tune. The C Trumpet is often indicated in modem scores, which saves the reader much trouble in transpositon, but in this country the B flat Trumpet is now used almost exclusively, the player doing any necessary transpositon himself when playing from parts written in other keys. A small Trumpet in D is often used for Bach and Handel parts as those composers generally wrote for the D instrument and their parts usually would lie rather high for the B flat Trumpet. Before leaving tlie Horn and Trumpet, a word needs to be said about the process known as " hand-stopping " on the Natural Horn. Sometimes notes are found in parts written for Natural Horn which are not true upper partials. These were obtained by the action of the hand in the bell of the instrument which had the effect of flattening or sharpening the open note. They were of different quality from the open notes, and much inferior, but they did give composers a chance of obtaining more notes than the Natural series of upper partials afforded. On the whole, however, the classical composers confined themselves to the open notes. Some stopped notes are to be found in the Trio of the Scherzo of Beethoven's 3rd Symphony (Eroica). In this symphony the very rare number of three horns is employed. Stopped notes were not used on the Trumpet. They were difficult to produce, and of very poor quality.

The Saxophone. Saxophones are rarely used in the orchestra, but as they some- times make their appearance they must be mentioned here. There is a whole family of them from Sopranino down to Contrabass. The complete list is as follows : Sopranino in E flat (or sometimes in F) Soprano in B flat. Alto in E flat. Tenor in B flat. Baritone in E flat. Bass in B flat. Contrabass in E flat. And here are their transpositions. The treble clef is used for all of them, by the way : The Saxophone usually employed in the orchestra is the Alto in E flat, but in Ravel's Bolero there are parts for Sopranino in F, Soprano in B flat, and Tenor in B flat. But it is very .exceptional to find Saxophones in orchestral scores at all.

The Bass Flute or Alto Flute. This is also a great rarity, but parts for it occur in Stravinsky's "Sacre du Printemps" and in such well-known works as Ravel's "Daphnis and Chloe", Vaughan Williams' "Job", and Hoist's "Planets". It is in G, and is written a fourth above the sound intended so that its part can be read by an ordinary flautist, the fingering being the same as that of the ordinary flute. Transposition: For completeness two more rare instruments whose parts transpose must be mentioned, namely the Clarinet in E flat, and the Oboe d'amore. The Clarinet in E flat transposes like the trumpet in E flat, i.e. up a minor third, and the Oboe d'amore like the Clarinet in A, i.e. down a minor third. The Clarinet in E flat is common enough in Military Bands which always contain at least one, and Berlioz, Strauss and Elgar have used it in their symphonic works. The Oboe d'amore is an old instrument used in the time of Bach, and recently revived. Parts for it occur in Ravel's "Bolero" and Strauss's "Sinfonia Domestica". Turning to instruments other than Wind Instruments, parts for Celesta, Glockenspiel and Xylophone are written an octave lower than then- true pitch. In old scores Timpani parts were always written on the notes C and G, the tuning being indicated at the beginning. But now the true sounded notes are always written.

A few aids to Transposition. Here are a few tips which are quite useful: (i) The Horn in D may be read in the Alto clef, the proper key- signature being added, thus : (ii) The Bass Clarinet in B flat and Tenor Tuba in the Treble clef, also the Horn in B flat basso may be read in the Tenor clef, thus : (iii) The Horns in E flat or E may be read in the Bass clef, the proper key-signatures being added and the notes transposed up an octave, thus : There are no easy ways of reading Clarinet and Trumpet parts in B flat or A, nor Horns in F. This is unfortunate as these are the transpositions most frequently met with. A little keyboard-work will help here and the Morris-Ferguson book of Exercises recom- mended above for the clefs will be found of great assistance also in transposing. It is advisable to get into the habit of transposing mentally from one key into the other rather than laboriously to transpose each note as it comes. Classical Horn and Trumpet parts are so simple and so rarely employ accidentals that no difficulty should be experienced with them. But Clarinet parts and modern Brass parts are harder to read because they may contain a good many accidentals. From time to time efforts have been made to rationalise this transposing business by printing scores with all notes at their true, sounding pitch. But as this means that the score is not identical with the parts it is liable to lead to misunderstandings between players and conductor at rehearsals. Also to anyone accustomed to the transpositions the score looks wrong and fails to register its effect automatically on the inner ear. We have seen, too, that the transpositions are based on the teclmique of the instruments, and this would have to he revolutionised if the rationalised method were to be successfully introduced. If we could kill off all the existing players of transposing instruments and have a period of orchestral silence while new ones were being trained on the new system, and if all existing scores and parts could be burned or repulped and new ones printed, such a revolution miglit be possible. But you cannot do that sort of thing in democratic countries. One more point before we leave this subject. We have seen that in the old Natural Horn and Trumpet days the parts for these instruments were always written in C, the crooks regulating the actual pitch. This custom of writing Horn and Trumpet parts without any key-signature has persisted up to the present day, though some composers have been using key-signatures for these parts in recent years. In the majority of scores the reader will find, therefore, no key-signatures for these instruments. This facilitates spotting the parts in the score, but it often results in a great many accidentals.